Summarizing Four Articles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summarizing Four Articles - Essay Example Similarly, reducing the abuse and use of drugs cannot solely be achieved by the efforts of the department of health alone, but requires the integration of the political players, the public health and those in the public policy to establish an integrated approach that can be applied to face the problem of drugs (Tarantola, 1). The national drug problem cannot also be addressed through the establishment of good drug treatment and rehabilitation services, since even though such efforts might help to address the problem of those who are already addicted to drug use, the approach does less to prevent the use of drugs by those who have not yet started using drugs (Reuter and Pollack, 341). The combined efforts of the police and the researchers in social crimes is an important concept towards addressing social crimes such as vandalism, drug and alcohol use, owing to the fact that such combined efforts serve as complimentary efforts that makes identifying and alleviating social crimes much e asier, than when the police department is left to address the crimes on its own (Baker and Wolfer, 47). According to the article, â€Å"Community Governance an Organized Approach to Fighting Crime†, by Joe Reiss, the police department on its own cannot be able to fight social crimes effectively, while the adoption of the community policing strategy either, may not be too helpful (Reiss, 8). The City of Anaheim in California is a good example of how the integrated efforts of the police, community policing and other city departments can help address social crimes. In this city, the combined efforts of the police, community preservation department, the public works department, the utilities department and the office of the attorney, reinforced by the community policing efforts made it possible to reduce the social neighborhood crimes by almost 80% in the 2000s (Reiss, 9). Through increased coordination and

Build a Fire with Nature Essay Example for Free

Build a Fire with Nature Essay The story is told in an omniscient point of view about a man’s journey through the Yukon wilderness all alone, with only a Husky as a companion. While the man’s thoughts are occupied with many characters such as the old timer in Sulphur Creek and the boys that he is to meet in the other camp, it is evident in the story that there are only two characters: the unnamed protagonist and the dog. Given this, the conflict that is observed in the story is one that of internal conflict: a man’s struggle to overcome everyday natural circumstances that turn to be his plight and his downfall because of his overconfidence in the possibility of conquering nature. The story is a commentary on how humans are always in conflict with nature, and it is up to them to align themselves with the workings of nature or not. In case of the latter, they will suffer the consequences because of the notion that nature can never be conquered nor defied without doing ill or even death to whoever takes the endeavor. As already established, the conflict represented in the story is between man and his struggle with nature. It is interesting to note that the character of the dog is significant in the story. As a matter of fact, it serves as the embodiment of what nature is and what it can do. When the man remembers the advice of the old timer in Sulphur Creek and realizes for the first time that he made a mistake, it is not a big deal to the dog. The dog is portrayed as an expert of the winter and the trail. This wisdom of the dog is suggested in the words of the author: â€Å"The animal is depressed by the tremendous cold. It knew that it was no time for traveling. Its instinct told it a truer tale than was told to the man by the man’s judgment† (London 422). Even with this, the man feels superior over the dog and does not realize that the dog is more knowledgeable than him when it comes to surviving the winter. Furthermore, it even crosses his mind to kill the dog for his own survival, but it is not feasible. When he calls the dog to realize his evil plans, â€Å"its suspicious nature sensed danger—it knew not what danger, but somewhere, somehow, in its brain arose an apprehension of the man† (London 432). This idea of him wanting to kill the dog suggests control and defiance of nature. It is observed that in the end, the dog is able to find its way safe to the next camp which suggests that nature knows better than man. â€Å"And still later it crept close to the man and caught the scent of death. This made the animal bristle and back away. Then it turned and trotted up the trail in the direction of the camp it knew, where were the other food-providers and fire-providers† (London 435). The unnamed protagonist succumbs to death after two failures of building fire to warm himself. This is a result of his stubbornness of traveling all alone after being warned by an old timer that it is not safe to hike when the temperature is fifty degrees below zero. His first struggle of building a fire to warm his wet legs and foot-gear is undone when â€Å"one bough capsized its load of snow† to the fire (London 429). This incident is again an indication that man has nothing to do with the workings of nature. The fire that he builds for his own protection and comfort is extinguished right away by just a load of snow from the same tree where he took the twigs and branches to feed the fire. â€Å"Each time he had pulled a twig he had communicated a slight agitation to the tree—an imperceptible agitation, so far as he was concerned, but an agitation is sufficient to bring about the disaster† (London 429). This event suggests that the very essence of nature in providing for every human need is also negated in its ability to extinguish what is excessive and what is not wholly deserved. When he realized that he has already failed many times in keeping himself warm and has made a mistake to travel by himself when he should not, he decides to end his struggle. The moment he decides to fight no more and accept his fate is the moment where he achieves the epiphany that the old man was right and that nature is impossible to be owned or conquered. No matter how he struggles to survive nature’s pangs of cold, â€Å"He was losing in his battle with the frost. It was creeping into his body from all sides† (London 434). In conclusion, the death of the protagonist is neither caused by his inability to build fire nor his lack of knowledge of the fire and the winter. It is caused by his defiance of nature’s forces. First, he refuses to take heed of the old timer’s precautions. Second, he believes too much of himself that he can survive the winter by himself. As a matter of fact, he disregards the dog all throughout the story except when he plans to kill it. Third, instead of availing the only help he can get—the dog—he plans to kill it, and in this way, he commits a crime against nature. As a consequence, he fails to kill it for his fingers are numbed with the cold, and he is unable to at least throttle the animal. The dog displays knowledge and wisdom in surviving the trail and the winter; however, the man has not realized this. If only he knew, they could have been safe in the next camp in no time. Finally, it was too late when he decides to conform to nature. It was the last and final stage that ultimately leads to his death. When he gave up the idea of fighting nature back, he realizes one important thing: that there is no way he can conquer nature. He realizes that the only way to live and survive alongside nature is to build fire with it, not against it. Work Cited London, Jack. â€Å"To Build a Fire. † Great American Short Stories: From Hawthorne to Hemingway. Eds. Corinne Demas. San Francisco: Spark Educational Publishing, 2004. 420-435.

Heating Ventilation And Air Conditioning

Heating Ventilation And Air Conditioning Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) constitutes up to 35 percent of energy used in manufacturing facilities. HVAC stands for heating, ventilation and air conditioning and refers to the equipment, distribution network and terminals used either collectively or individually to provide fresh filtered air, heating, cooling and humidity control in a building. A facility can have any combination of heating and cooling sources to supply the HVAC system. For heating a facility, a gas-or oil-fired boiler or furnace, heat pump, rooftop unit, new technology such as infrared radiation, or electric heat could be employed. Common cooling sources include rooftop units, chillers, heat pumps, air conditioner or some sort of off-peak cooling system. The Basic HVAC Design HVAC systems can vary in design and complexity. Air is taken through an outdoor air intake that is usually a louvered opening on the top or side of the building. Atmospheric pressure pushes the air through a damper, which regulates the amount of outdoor air (OA) taken in by the system. At this point, already conditioned return air (RA) from the system can be mixed with the outdoor air to form mixed air. The mixed air goes through pre-filter where larger dust particles; insects, leaves, etc. are caught. A more efficient filter is usually present to address small particles. After the filters, the air enters a centrifugal fan. Once exiting the fan outlet, the air is under positive pressure and being Pushed towards coils where the air is either heated or cooled, depending on the temperature of the air and the season. Under the coils lies a drain pan to collect any water condensing on the coils. If a humidifier or dehumidifier is needed it is usually incorporated into the cycle at this point. The air travels through ductwork where it reaches a distribution box and may travel through smaller ducts to supply the terminals, registers or diffusers into the workspace. Once the air reaches its destination, it is returned through an air register (usually through a louvered door that opens into a space above the ceiling tiles) in the form of return air that will become mixed air or exit the building. Air Conditioning Air conditioning is treating air for temperature, cleanliness and humidity, and directing its distribution to meet requirements of a conditioned space. Comfort air conditioning is when the primary function of the system is to provide comfort to occupants of the conditioned space. The term industrial air conditioning is used when the primary function is other than comfort. There are three basic types of air conditioners: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã†â€™ Direct expansion coolers include window air conditioners, heat pumps and packaged or rooftop units. Air is cooled and dehumidified as it moves past a cold, refrigerant-filled coil. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã†â€™ Chilled water systems use water cooled by a refrigeration machine instead of air. This cool water supplies a coil, which cools and dehumidifies the air. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã†â€™ Evaporative (or swamp) coolers are usually only appropriate in hot, dry climates and bring hot air in contact with a water spray or damp surface. The result is evaporation of moisture, which lowers the temperature of the air. What is Ventilation Ventilation is a process that either supplies or removes air from a space by natural or mechanical means. All air that is exhausted from a building must be replaced by outside air. Outside air must be brought to a certain temperature by makeup air units used throughout the building. Negative building pressure can be a problem during winter heating season and could lead to a number of other problems such as difficulty in opening doors and equipment operation. Air seeps through gaps around windows, doors and ducts. While designing HVAC systems for energy efficiency-cy, it is also good to take into account the design for human comfort. Good working conditions increase productivity and employee satisfaction. The HVAC design should incorporate: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã†â€™ a determination of indoor conditions and how energy use is affected; à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã†â€™ the impact on equipment selection, ducting and register design; and à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã†â€™ determination whether certain conditions will be acceptable for comfort criterion. Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Systems The main purposes of a Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) system are to help maintain good indoor air quality through adequate ventilation with filtration and provide thermal comfort. The choice and design of the HVAC system can also affect many other high performance goals, including water consumption (water cooled air conditioning equipment) and acoustics. Codes and Standards Many state codes also specify minimum energy efficiency requirements, ventilation controls, pipe and duct insulation and sealing, and system sizing, among other factors. In addition, some states and localities have established ventilation and other indoor air quality related requirements that must also be followed. Design in accordance with ASHRAE standards Design systems to provide outdoor air ventilation in accord with ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007 and thermal comfort in accord with ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 (with 1995 Addenda) Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy Ensure familiarity with, and adherence to, all state and local building codes and standards. Potential for Natural Ventilation and Operable Windows In some parts of the country, where temperature and humidity levels permit, natural ventilation through operable windows can be an effective and energy-efficient way to supplement HVAC systems to provide outside air ventilation, cooling, and thermal comfort when conditions permit (e.g., temperature, humidity, outdoor air pollution levels, precipitation). Windows that open and close can enhance occupants sense of well-being and feeling of control over their environment. They can also provide supplemental exhaust ventilation during renovation activities that may introduce pollutants into the space. However, sealed buildings with appropriately designed and operated HVAC systems can often provide better indoor air quality than a building with operable windows. Uncontrolled ventilation with outdoor air can allow outdoor air contaminants to bypass filters, potentially disrupt the balance of the mechanical ventilation equipment, and permit the introduction of excess moisture if access is not controlled. Strategies using natural ventilation include wind driven cross-ventilation and stack ventilation that employs the difference in air densities to provide air movement across a space. Both types of natural ventilation require careful engineering to ensure convective flows. The proper sizing and placement of openings is critical and the flow of air from entry to exit must not be obstructed (e.g., by closed perimeter rooms). Designers should consider the use of natural ventilation and operable windows to supplement mechanical ventilation. Consider outdoor sources of pollutants (including building exhausts and vehicle traffic) and noise when determining if and where to provide operable windows. If operable windows will be used to supplement the HVAC system, ensure that: openings for outdoor air are located between 3-6 feet from the floor (head height); the windows are adjustable and can close tightly and securely; the windows are placed to take maximum advantage of wind direction, with openings on opposite sides of the building to maximize cross-ventilation. Selection of HVAC Equipment In most parts of the country, climatic conditions require that outdoor air must be heated and cooled to provide acceptable thermal comfort for building occupants, requiring the addition of HVAC systems. The selection of equipment for heating, cooling and ventilating the school building is a complex design decision that must balance a great many factors, including heating and cooling needs, energy efficiency, humidity control, potential for natural ventilation, adherence to codes and standards, outdoor air quantity and quality, indoor air quality, and cost. Where feasible, use central HVAC air handling units (AHUs) that serve multiple rooms in lieu of unit ventilators or individual heat pumps. Although there are many different types of air handling units, for general IAQ implications in schools, air handling units can be divided into two groups: unit ventilators and individual heat pump units that serve a single room without ducts; and central air handling units that serve several rooms via duct work. Unit ventilators and heat pumps have the advantage of reduced floor space requirements, and they do not recirculate air between rooms. However, it is more difficult to assure proper maintenance of multiple units over time, and they present additional opportunities for moisture problems through the wall penetration and from drain pan and discharge problems. Central air handling units have a number of advantages as compared to unit ventilators and heat pumps serving individual rooms. Features for air handling units: Double-sloped drain pan and drain trap depth Double-sloped drain pan A double-sloped pan prevents water from standing and stagnating in the pan. Non-corroding drain pan Made from stainless steel or plastic. Prevents corrosion that would cause water to leak inside the AHU. Easy access doors All access doors are hinged and use quick release latches that do not require tools to open. Easy access to filters, drain pans, and cooling coils is imperative. Double wall cabinet The inner wall protects the insulation from moisture and mechanical damage, increases sound dampening, and is easier to clean. Tightly sealed cabinet Small yet continuous air leaks in and out of the AHU cabinet can affect IAQ and energy. The greatest pressure differentials driving leaks occur at the AHU. Double wall doors with gaskets Double wall doors provide better thermal and acoustic insulation, and will remain flatter, allowing a better seal against door frame gaskets Minimum 2 inch thick filter slots For better protection of the indoor environment, as well as the equipment and ducts, the filters slots should be able to accommodate 2 in. or thicker filters. Extended surface area filter bank To reduce the frequency of filter maintenance and the cost of fan energy, the bank is designed to allow more filter area, such as the deep V approach or bags. Air filter assemblies (racks housings) designed for minimum leakage The filter bank should have gaskets and sealants at all points where air could easily bypass the air filters, such as between the filter rack and the access door. Use properly gasketed manufacturer supplied filter rack spacers. Air filter monitor A differential pressure gauge to indicate the static pressure drop across the filter bank. This feature could easily be installed as an option in the field. Corrosion resistant dampers links All moving parts such as pivot pins, damper actuators, and linkages are able to withstand weather and moisture-induced corrosion for the full life of the system Location of Outdoor Air Intakes and Exhaust Sloped Intake Plenum and Accessible Intake Screen Proper location of outdoor air intakes can minimize the blockage of airflow and intake of contaminated air. The bottom of air intakes should be at least 8 inches above horizontal surfaces (generally the ground or the roof) to prevent blockage from leaves or snow. In northern locations, more separation may be needed due to greater snow depths or drifting snow. Intakes should not be placed within 25 feet of any potential sources of air contaminants, including sewer vents, exhaust air from the building, loading docks, loading areas, garbage receptacles, boiler or generator exhausts, and mist from cooling towers. If the source is large or contains strong contaminants, or if there is a dominant wind direction in the area, the minimum separation distance may need to be increased. Air admittance valves, an inexpensive and code-approved one-way air valve, can be added to sewer vents to eliminate the potential for release of gases into the surrounding air. Grilles protecting air intakes should be bird- and rodent-proofed to prevent perching, roosting, and nesting. Waste from birds and other pests (e.g., rats) can disrupt proper operation of the HVAC system, promote microbial growth and cause human disease. The use of outdoor air intake grilles with vertical louvers, as opposed to horizontal louvers, will reduce the potential for roosting. Intake Screens must be accessible for inspection and cleaning. In existing buildings, an insufficient amount of ventilation air is often the result of clogged intake screens that are inaccessible for inspection and cleaning. Screens hidden by an intake grille should be designed with a grille that is easily opened, such as a hinged grille with two quick-release latches, or in the worst case, a grille with four one-quarter turn fasteners. All screens should be easily removable for cleaning. Consider adding a section of sloped intake plenum that causes moisture to flow to the outside or to a drain if intake grilles are not designed to completely eliminate the intake of rain or snow. Air Distribution and Duct Insulation Dirt and moisture should not be present in duct systems, and must be controlled to prevent mold growth. However, it is not always possible to assure that ducts remain dirt and moisture free. In many existing buildings, sheet metal ducts, as well as those constructed of or lined with insulation products, are often contaminated with mold because dirt and moisture found their way into the system. Duct board and duct liner are widely used in duct systems because of their excellent acoustic, thermal, and condensation control properties. If the HVAC system is properly designed, fabricated, installed, operated and maintained, these duct systems pose no greater risk of mold growth than duct systems made of sheet metal or any other materials. However, the very properties that make duct board and duct liner superior insulators (e.g., a fibrous structure with large surface area that creates insulating air pockets), also makes them capable of trapping and retaining moisture if they do get wet (though the fibers themselves do not absorb moisture). While there is an ongoing debate about the wisdom of using insulation materials in duct systems that might retain moisture longer, all sides agree that extraordinary attention to preventing moisture contamination of the duct work should be the primary strategy for preventing mold growth. As a secondary strategy, designers should consider methods of reducing the potential for future problems to occur due to unforeseen moisture contamination by investigating insulation products now on the market that minimize the potential for moisture to penetrate the insulation material. These include foil vapor retarders, tightly bonded non-woven vapor retarders, butt or shiplap edges, and other techniques that have been developed by insulation manufacturers to address concerns about moisture. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign/hvac.html Water supply Water has the unfortunate quality of being heavier than air. it weighs 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. This mass requires a pressure of 0.433 psi to lift water one foot (62.4 lbs/144 in in ft). To put it another way, one psi will lift water 2.31 feet (1/0.433). In a single story building with 70 psi in the street, this can be insignificant. In a high-rise building, this factor will drive the design of both the hot and cold water systems. First, high and low pressures need to be determined. Plumbing codes usually limit the high water pressure to 80 psi. Using 70 psi will result in more manageable flow rates at the fixtures, reduced water hammer and lower velocities. These characteristics will result in lower operating costs and a longer life of the system. Codes often limit the low water pressure to 20 psi, unless there are fixtures such as flush valves that require greater pressures. Nevertheless, a minimum pressure of 40 psi is recommended for the comfort of the end users. With a pressure differential of 30 psi, a zone can be no more than 69 feet in height (30 ft x2.31 ft/psi). Using a typical floor to floor height, for a hotel, of 11 feet, no more than six floors can be served by a single zone. The next step is to determine the system pressure. The suction pressure can be determined by adding the street pressure and the elevation gain (assuming your booster pump is in the basement). Adding the anticipated losses including friction, elevation and PRV falloff to the minimum pressure results in the system pressure. Subtracting this from the street pressure yields the boost pressure. The manufacturer will also need to account for internal losses in the booster pump system. Booster pumps today can be configured in any number of ways. With advancements in pumping technology, vented roof tanks are a thing of the past. A constant speed pump, carefully calculated, could operate without PRVs. If so, PRVs might be required at the top floor, and shutoff head must be checked. Shutoff head is the system pressure resulting from the demand approaching zero. It can be determined by adding the suction pressure to the pressure indicated on the far left end of the pump curve. In some cases, this pressure can exceed the capacity of the piping system. If PRVs are provided on the pump discharge, problems with shutoff head can be eliminated outside of the booster pump package but must still be checked within the package. A better solution is a variable speed booster pump. By tracking pressure, flow or electrical current, a variable speed booster pump can deliver constant pressure at any flow rate. This provides a more predictable system pressure and saves electricity at t he same time. Regardless of pump type, the lower zones in a high rise will need PRVs. In most cases, for economical reasons, direct acting PRVs are used. A more consistent pressure can be maintained by using two valves piped in parallel (figure 1). The smaller valve may be sized to handle 1/3 of the flow rate at an acceptable falloff pressure. The larger valve is then sized for 2/3 of the flow rate at the same falloff pressure. If the smaller valve is set for 75 psi and the larger valve is set for 70 psi, then under low flow the larger valve will be closed and the smaller, more accurate valve will regulate the pressure. A relief valve is required downstream of the PRVs and will require an indirect waste receptor, which is often overlooked in the design of these stations. In many cases, the lowest of all zones may not require a boost in pressure. If so, a separate branch in the main, prior to the booster pump, could serve several lower floors, saving installation and utility costs. The maximum number of floors that can be served depends on the materials used. The booster pump, valves, piping and appurtenances must all be capable of handling the maximum pressure at the base of the riser. Understanding pressure ratings can get quite involved. Bronze, threaded, class 150 valves are limited to 200 psi at 150 F, while the more expensive class 200 valves are limited to 400 psi. Iron, class 125 valves up to 12 in size are also limited to 200 psi at 150 F, while the more expensive class 250 valves are limited to 500 psi. The correct valves must be specified in the booster pump package and in the piping system, at least for the lower floors. At higher floors, the pressure falls; good practice is to reduce the class of valves when a safe working pressure has been reached. Pressure gauges and other small devices are often overlooked, along with, surprisingly, the piping. The maximum safe working pressure of 6 hard drawn copper tube at 150 F is 376 psi, and the maximum gauge working pressure of the solder joint (assuming 95-5 tin-antimony solder) is 375 psi, but the rated internal working pressure of the fitting is only 213 psi. As such, serving more than 40 floors can be difficult at best. One solution, to add a few more floors, is to use stainless steel pipe. The typical joint working pressure of schedule 10S can be 300 psi and schedule 40S can be 600 psi depending on the couplings used. When serving even taller high rise buildings, a secondary pumping station must be used (figure 2). In this scenario, a lower pump serves the bottom half of the building and also feeds the suction side of the higher pump, which in turn serves the top half of the building. Particular attention must be given to the simultaneous control of these pump sets; a buffer tank may be necessary to maintain a constant suction pressure at the higher tank Alternatively, two lower pumps can be provided, one for the lower fixtures and one to feed the higher pump. This separation of the upper and lower building systems will allow for more independent control over pressures and can be useful for maintenance. In most high rises, the water is pumped up to the PRV stations that are located at the top of the zones. The downstream risers and branch piping then downfeed to the fixtures. This decision, however, can be affected by the type of fixtures and the location of the hot water heater. In an upfeed system, the pressure loss due to friction and the pressure loss due to elevation are additive; the worst case is the top of the system where the pressure is lowest. In a downfeed system, at least for smaller pipe sizes, the friction pressure loss will be somewhat offset by the pressure gain from downfeeding. Also, since the friction loss is greatest at the bottom of the system where the pressure is greatest, smaller branch pipes can be utilized. The result is a more consistent static and dynamic pressure, providing a better experience for the end user. An economic analysis often reveals that the cost of the express riser, the upfeed pipe that has no connections, is less than the savings from the smaller branch piping. It is strongly recommended that the hot and cold water in any building feed in the same direction. Otherwise, the cold water friction losses may be at a minimum where the hot water friction losses are at a maximum. Even with pressure balancing shower valves, a differential pressure of 50% could have disastrous results. If the water heater is on the roof, a downfeed system makes good sense. The design of hot water systems is outside of the scope of this article. Engineers often return this hot water to the central water heater. Doing so can create a system that is very difficult to balance. Even when each zone is protected by a check valve, the pressure from the higher zone will often prevent the lower zones from circulating at all. A better approach is to circulate within each zone (figure 3). A fractional horsepower pump and a small electric tank type heater work well. Five gallons and three to nine kilowatts will handle six floors of almost any footprint since the water is only reheating from 110 F to 120 F. Since the pressure is already reduced, the circulating pump and reheat tank can be placed on any floor. Dont forget about the main hot water riser. It must still be circulated back to the central system to ensure that this large column of water does not get cold overnight. One final issue to consider in both hot and cold water distribution is the ability to purge air from the system. There are manual air vents the best way to purge air from the system is simply to provide horizontal distribution on the floor below the highest floor in each zone. This allows the air to collect in each riser and float to the top, where it is purged every time that a fixture on the top floor is used. This is rarely noticed by the end user unless the fixture is seldom used. http://www.plumbingengineer.com/june_08/highrise_feature.php Drainage Pressure control on the drainage side presents other challenges. water is essentially the same in either system; however, drainage theory holds that considerable air travels downward with the water flow. This theory asserts that water flowing in a vertical pipe tends to adhere to the pipes walls, acting very much like a sleeve of water with a hollow core of air, all sliding down the pipes walls until it reaches a ratio of approximately 6/24 full of the pipe cross-sectional area. This watery sleeve travels at almost 15 feet per second (fps), propelled by gravity but restricted by friction. When the piping remains vertical, the entrained air is relatively simple to control, but when piping offsets from the vertical, the fluid flow velocity drops considerably, filling the entire pipe diameter. Horizontal, sloped drainage piping should flow in the 4-8 fps range, so it is easy to see that a large slug of water can quickly develop. This can lead to compressing air in the path of the fluid and/or lowering air pressure on the leaving side of the fluid flow. The impact of these fluid and air fluctuations can be controlled by effective use of yoke vents, relief vents, and vent connections at the bases of stacks. the solutions are largely not unique and have been used successfully on many intermediate-height and even extremely tall high-rise buildings. A related concern is the impact of the hydraulic jump on the piping itself. The mass of water and the rapid change of velocity from vertical to horizontal cause this jump. While the pressure associated with this jump is significant, it does not destroy the fitting at the base of the stack. Rather, the movement of the pipe stresses the frictional forces that hold the joint to the pipe, leading to eventual coupling failure. Good design must compensate for the strong thrust that occurs at this change of direction. Successful methods include increasing the horizontal drain size and/or slope, using thrust blocks, or using restraining joints with threaded rod or similar arrangements that mechanically anchor the fitting to the entering and leaving piping. Once the water is raised and used, it is discharged to a drainage system that includes an attendant venting system, which is responsible for the flow of air in the drainage piping network. Air is critical to the drainage process because drainage flow is caused by sloping pipes, and the motive force is gravity. Absent air, the drainage would range from erratic to nonexistent. When the water in a pipe flows to a lower area, air must be added to replace the water, or a negative pressure zone will occur. If this zone is near a fixture, air will be drawn into the drainage system through the fixture trap with an easily identified gulping sound and very slow drain performance. This condition leads to poor performance throughout the drainage system and trap seal loss due to siphoning or blowout. The remedy for this condition is venting. At the individual fixture level, this consists of a fixture vent. As the number of fixtures increases, venting needs do as well, and a venting system evolves, with branch, circuit, and loop vents at the appropriate locations. When dealing with high-rise drainage stacks, a vent stack should be attendant, allowing for pressure equalization and re lief along the height and breadth of the system. Aside from relieving pressure in the drainage system, the vent system allows air to circulate in both directions in response to the fluctuating flow in the drainage system. In many high-rise vent designs, where stacks need to offset horizontally on a given floor, a relief vent is required. Although not often highlighted, the building venting system also serves to supplement the vent for the municipal sewer, relieving noxious or even hazardous gases and allowing the sewer to drain without pressure limitation. Fire Protection One area that should not be overlooked in any high-rise design is the fire protection systems. As a minimum, all high-rise buildings should have sprinkler systems on each floor and standpipe systems in each stairwell. These systems have proven themselves throughout the years to significantly save both life and property. The specific type, coverage density, and outlet placement all vary based on the building type, height, and location and local fire authorities. All high-rise buildings containing fire protection systems have large, dedicated fire pumps to provide the flows and pressures required for the individual system. While not always tasked with these system designs, plumbing engineers need to know that these systems are an integral part of the building and must account for their presence regarding equipment space, riser locations, and ceiling cavities. Wet systems in commercial spaces must be designed as a minimum to criteria for Light Hazard (0.10 gpm/sq. ft. over the remote 1,500 sq. ft. of floor area). Sprinkler piping on floors up to the 2nd floor shall be sized for street pressure only. Standpipe systems shall be provided .In particular: a. The standpipe risers shall be interconnected and have isolation valve for each standpipe. b. Two four-way fire department connections shall be provided on separate streets, piped to separate standpipe risers. c. At least one fire department connection shall be piped to the standpipe side of an isolation valve. d. FDCs must be located at an approved location. e. A Fire hydrant must be located within 50ft of the FDC g. Roof and floor remote areas must be within 200 feet of hose travel distance from a protected standpipe hose connection. Standpipe risers shall be combination standpipe/sprinkler risers using a minimum pipe size of 6 inch. One 2-1/2 inch hose connection shall be provided on every intermediate floor level landing in every required stairway and elsewhere as required. Two separate water supplies are required for the sprinkler/standpipe system. One must be a permanent City water main connection and the second must be a dedicated reservoir. http://www.newcomb-boyd.com/pdf/high-rise%20article.pdf

Theme of Loneliness in Frankenstein Essay -- Frankenstein essays Shell

Theme of Loneliness in Frankenstein   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the novel Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, one of the key themes is loneliness. For many, most of their time is spent with people, whether it is friends, family, coworkers, or strangers. Many of the characters in this book break that norm and spend countless hours alone. Having time to reflect and think about everything. Sometimes, the characters are still lonely, even with people, and sometimes friends around them. The first character that we are introduced to is R. Walton. He is on a ship with many deck hands and crewmembers, but in his letter to Margaret, his sister, he states, "I have no friend. Even when I am glowing with the enthusiasm of success, there will be none to participate my joy; if I am assailed by disappointment, no one will endeavor to sustain to me dejection." Although Walton has a boat full of men, he still feels lonely and friendless, and wishes he had a male companion to sympathize with him. Perhaps the reason that he feels this way is that he is looking for a different type of friend than what these tough sailors can offer. "I spoke of my (Walton) desire of finding a friend, of my thirst for a more intimate sympathy with a fellow mind than had ever fallen to my lot." The next character that we meet who is lonely is Victor Frankenstein. At first he doesn't seem to be because, since he was a child he has had Elizabeth as a constant playmate and friend, along with Henry Clerval. But when he leaves to go to college in Ingolstadt, he feels all alone because he has left all his friends behind him. Although his professor, Waldman, befriends him, there, at Ingolstadt, he spends many hours secluded and alone, working on his creation, the... ...ry. The loneliness of Frankenstein and the monster drove them miserable for most their lives, and in the end, to death. Walton on the other had, turns back to civilization, perhaps learning something from the story of Victor Frankenstein. In the book Frankenstein, there were many moments of glory for Victor Frankenstein, but in the end he only ending up destroying many of his family, himself, and the monster after suffering through loneliness and grief for a big part of his life.    Sources Botting, Fred. Making Monstrous. Frankenstein, criticism, theory. Manchester University Press, 1991. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein or the Modern Prometheus. Edited with an Introduction and notes by Maurice Hindle. Penguin books, 1992 Williams, Bill. On Loneliness in Frankenstein.   http://www.umich.edu/~umfandsf/class/books/frank/papers/FrankWJW.html   

Managing a police service Area Essay

Commanders managing a police service area faced with a number of challenges. Some of these include corruption, racial profiling, and poor cooperation and relationship between the police force and the local community. All this problems have been attributed among other reasons to insufficient training of law enforcement, discriminative administration, and lack of employee engagement. Therefore, managing a police service area challenges can be mitigated by ensuring a highly motivated and trained police force as well as engaging the community to enhance their appreciation of the police. Corruption has been cited as a major problem compromising the effectiveness of the police force. According to available statistical evidence, the problem of drug dealings is increasing becoming an issue of national concern in the American nation. This is despite the fact that the law enforcement has the potential to identify, mitigate or prosecute the offenders. However, the problem of corruption has been closely attributed to poor motivation to police officers as well as lack of an effective channel for getting public feedback on the conduct of police officers. Another problem facing commanders managing a police service area is poor communication and cooperation of police officers and the community. The community is evidently identified as a crucial tool for aiding in the identification and mitigation in the community. Therefore, poor relationships between local law enforcement and the community serve only to escalate crime in the community, a negation to the sole duty of the police service area commander. Indeed, such poor relationships are a major threaten to the life of officers as they are perceived by the community as enemies rather than just and fair law enforcer. The third challenge affecting commanders managing a police service area is racial profiling. Racial discrimination in the law enforcement agencies has been a major critic from the general public. The sole duty of all police officers is to ensure sustainable peace and security in the community. This means that police officers should function to investigate on suspected crime offenders based on substantial evidence rather than based on their race, nationality, and ethnicity. It is this practices which remains a major challenge for commanders to oversee the fair and just enforcement of the rule of the law. As a police manager, there are a number of actions I would take to mitigate these problems. First, I would ensure implementation policies as a way of mitigating the problem of police corruption. Such practices would include increment of payment and service allowances for the police. Other could be engaging officers in retirement benefit schemes as well as providing job security. This is because I believe that most officers engage in corruption as a way of accumulating extra earnings for their present and future needs. On the problem of poor relationship between police and community as well as racial profiling, I would ensure the introduction of a comprehensive police training scheme. Skilled and reliable police officers should high sufficient skills on public relations. Such training will also equip the officers with the necessary skills of dealing with a diverse population, a factor that could compromise racial profiling. The biggest problem causing poor relationship between the police and the community is poor communication. To eliminate this problem, I would encourage interactive sections between the police and the community members as a way of breaking the current relational gap.

Ap World Unit 4 Review

PART II, UNIT IV:1750-1914 The era between 1750 and 1914 C. E. was one of clear Europeanhegemony. In the previous era (1450 to 1750 C. E. ), Europeans hadtilted the balance of world power away from Asia, where powerfulcivilizations had existed since ancient times. However, despitegrowing European influence based on sea trade and colonization, majorland-based empires in Asia still influenced long-distance trade andshaped political and economic conditions around them. In this era,Europe not only dominated the western hemisphere, as it had in thelast, but it came to control the eastern hemisphere as well. How didthey do it?Part of the answer lies in a set of discoveries andhappenings that together constitute an important â€Å"Marker Event† – theIndustrial Revolution. Another set of philosophical and politicalevents were equally important – the establishment of democracy as amajor element of a new type of political organization – the†nation. † QUE STIONS OF PERIODIZATION Very important characteristics that distinguish 1750-1914 fromprevious eras in world history include: †¢ European dominance of long-distance trade – Whether by â€Å"unequal treaties† or colonization, sea-based trade gave European countries control of all major trade circuits in the world. â€Å"Have† and â€Å"have not† countries created by Industrialization – The Industrial Revolution gave huge economic and political advantages to countries where it occurs over countries that remained primarily agricultural. †¢ Inequalities among regions increase due to imperialism – Industrialized countries set out to form overseas empires, sometimes through colonization and other times by economic and/or political domination. †¢ Political revolutions inspired by democracy and desire for independence – These revolutions continue to the present, but â€Å"seed† revolutions that put new democratic forms o f government in place occurred during this era.The â€Å"nation† emerged as a new type of political organization. We will analyze these important characteristics of the period byexamining these topics: †¢ Changes in global commerce, communications, and technology – Patterns of world trade and contact changed as the Industrial Revolution revolutionized communications and commerce. Distances became shorter as the Suez and Panama Canals cut new channels for travel, and new technology meant that ships were faster than before. Railroads revived land travel. Demographic and environmental changes – Huge numbers of people migrated to the Americas from Europe and Asia, so that population in the western hemisphere grew dramatically. The slave trade ended, and so did forced migrations from Africa to the New World. Industrialization had a huge impact on the environment, as demands for new fuels came about and cities dominated the landscape in industrialized countries. Industrialization also increased the demand for raw materials from less industrialized countries, altering natural landscapes further. Changes in social and gender structures – Serf and slave systems became less common, but the gap between the rich and poor grew in industrialized countries. We will explore the controversy regarding changes in women's roles in response to industrialization. Did women's status improve, or did gender inequality grow? †¢ Political revolutions and independence movements; new political ideas – Absolutism was challenged in many parts of the globe, and democracy took root as a result of economic and social change and Enlightenment philosophies that began in the 17th century. Nations† arose as political entities that inspired nationalism and movements of political reform. †¢ Rise of western dominance – The definition of â€Å"west† expanded to include the United States and Australia, and western dominance reached n ot only economic and political areas, but extended to social, cultural, and artistic realms as well. Although coercive labor systems as such declined during this era,new questions of equality and justice emerged as west came todominate east, and the gap between the rich and poor grew larger,particularly in the most prosperous countries. CHANGES IN GLOBAL COMMERCE, COMMUNICATIONS, ANDTECHNOLOGYBy 1750 international trade and communications were nothing new. During the 1450-1750 era Europeans had set up colonies in theAmericas so that for the first time in world history the western andeastern hemispheres were in constant contact with one another. However, after 1750 the pace of trade picked up dramatically, fed bya series of economic and technological transformations collectivelyknown as the Industrial Revolution. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Remember that to be called a Marker Event in world history, adevelopment should qualify in three ways: †¢ It must cross national or cultural b orders, affecting many civilizations. Later changes or developments in history must be at least partially traced to this event or series of events. †¢ It must have impact in other areas. For example, if it is a technological change, it must impact some other major areas, like government, belief systems, social classes, or the economy. Like the Neolithic Revolution that occurred 10,000 years beforeit, the Industrial Revolution qualifies as a Marker Event accordingto all of the above criteria. It brought about such sweeping changesthat it virtually transformed the world, even areas in whichindustrialization did not occur.The concept seems simple &endash;invent and perfect machinery to help make human labor more efficient- but that's part of its importance. The change was so basic that itcould not help but affect all areas of people's lives in every partof the globe. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the late 18thcentury, and spread during the 19th century to Belgium, Germany,Northern France, the United States, and Japan. Almost all areas ofthe world felt the effects of the Industrial Revolution because itdivided the world into â€Å"have† and â€Å"have not† countries, with many ofthe latter being controlled by the former.England's lead in theIndustrial Revolution translated into economic prowess and politicalpower that allowed colonization of other lands, eventually building aworldwide British Empire. WHY BRITAIN? The Industrial Revolution helped England greatly increase itsoutput of manufactured goods by substituting hand labor with machinelabor. Economic growth in Britain was fueled by a number offactors: †¢ An Agricultural Revolution – The Industrial Revolution would not have been possible without a series of improvements in agriculture in England.Beginning in the early1700s, wealthy landowners began to enlarge their farms through enclosure, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new techniq ues of farming. These scientific farmers improved crop rotation methods, which carefully controlled nutrients in the soil. They bred better livestock, and invented new machines, such as Jethro Tull's seed drill that more effectively planted seeds. The larger the farms and the better the production the fewer farmers were needed. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either became tenant farmers or they moved to cities.Better nutrition boosted England's population, creating the first necessary component for the Industrial Revolution: labor. †¢ A technological revolution – England also was the first to experience a technological revolution, a series of inventions built on the principles of mass production, mechanization, and interchangeable parts. Josiah Wedgwood developed a mold for pottery that replaced the potters wheel, making mass production of dishes possible. Many experimented with machinery to speed up human labor, and interchangeable parts meant that machin es were more practical and easier to repair. Natural resources – Britain had large and accessible supplies of coal and iron – two of the most important raw materials used to produce the goods for the early Industrial Revolution. Also available was water power to fuel the new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation. †¢ Economic strength – During the previous era, Britain had already built many of the economic practices and structures necessary for economic expansion, as well as a middle class (the bourgeoisie) that had experience with trading and manufacturing goods.Banks were well established, and they provided loans for businessmen to invest in new machinery and expand their operations. †¢ Political stability – Britain's political development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal upheavals occurring. Although Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none of them took place on British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question the government's authority. By 1750 Parliament's power far exceeded that of the king, and its members passed laws that protected business and helped expansion.NEW INVENTIONS The earliest transformation of the Industrial Revolution wasBritain's textile industry. In 1750 Britain already exported wool,linen, and cotton cloth, and the profits of cloth merchants wereboosted by speeding up the process by which spinners and weavers madecloth. One invention led to another since none were useful if anypart of the process was slower than the others. Some key inventionswere: †¢ The flying shuttle – John Kay's invention carried threads of yarn back and forth when the weaver pulled a handle, greatly ncreasing the weavers' productivity. †¢ The spinning jenny – James Hargreaves' invention allowed one spinner to work eight threads at a time, increasing the output of spinners, allowing them to keep up with the weavers . Hargreaves named the machine for his daughter. †¢ The water frame – Richard Arkwright's invention replaced the hand-driven spinning jenny with one powered by water power, increasing spinning productivity even more. †¢ The spinning mule – In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce the spinning mule.It made thread that was stronger, finer, and more consistent than that made by earlier machines. He followed this invention with the power loom that sped up the weaving process to match the new spinners. These machines were bulky and expensive, so spinning and weavingcould no longer be done at home. Wealthy textile merchants set up themachines in factories, and had the workers come to these places to dotheir work. At first the factories were set up near rivers andstreams for water power, but other inventions later made thisunnecessary.Before the late 1700s Britain's demand for cotton wasmet by India, but they in creasingly came to depend on the Americansouth, where plantation production was speeded by Eli Whitney'sinvention of the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently separated thecotton fiber from the seed. By 1810 southern plantations used slavelabor to produce 85 million pounds of cotton, up from 1. 5 million in1790. TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENTS Once the textile industry began its exponential growth,transportation of raw materials to factories and manufactured goodsto customers had to be worked out.New inventions in transportationspurred the Industrial Revolution further. A key invention was thesteam engine that was perfected by James Watt in the late 1790s. Although steam power had been used before, Watt invented ways to makeit practical and efficient to use for both water and landtransportation. Perhaps the most revolutionary use of steam energy was therailroad engine, which drove English industry after 1820. The firstlong-distance rail line from the coastal city of Liverpool to inland Manchester was an immediate success upon its completion in 1830, andwithin a few decades, most British cities were connected by rail.Railroads revolutionized life in Britain in several ways: 1) Railroads gave manufacturers a cheap way to transport materialsand finished products. 2) The railroad boom created hundreds of thousands of new jobs forboth railroad workers and miners. 3) The railroad industry spawned new industries and inventions andincreased the productivity of others. For example, agriculturalproducts could be transported farther without spoiling, so farmersbenefited from the railroads. 4) Railroads transported people, allowing them to work in citiesfar away from their homes and travel to resort areas for leisure.THE SPREAD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution occurred only in Britain for about 50years, but it eventually spread to other countries in Europe, theUnited States, Russia, and Japan. British entrepreneurs andgovernment officials forbade the exp ort of machinery, manufacturingtechniques, and skilled workers to other countries but thetechnologies spread by luring British experts with lucrative offers,and even smuggling secrets into other countries. By the mid-19thcentury industrialization had spread to France, Germany, Belgium, andthe United States.The earliest center of industrial production in continental Europewas Belgium, where coal, iron, textile, glass, and armamentsproduction flourished. By 1830 French firms had employed many skilledBritish workers to help establish the textile industry, and railroadlines began to appear across western Europe. Germany was a littlelater in developing industry, mainly because no centralizedgovernment existed there yet, and a great deal of political unrestmade industrialization difficult. However, after the 1840s Germancoal and iron production skyrocketed, and by the 1850s an extensiverail network was under construction.After German politicalunification in 1871, the new empire rivaled En gland in terms ofindustrial production. Industrialization began in the United States by the 1820s, delayeduntil the country had enough laborers and money to invest inbusiness. Both came from Europe, where overpopulation and politicalrevolutions sent immigrants to the United States to seek theirfortunes. The American Civil War (1861-1865) delayed furtherimmigration until the 1870s, but it spurred the need for industrialwar products, all the way from soldiers' uniforms to guns torailroads for troop transport.Once the war was over, cross-countryrailroads were built which allowed more people to claim parts of vastinland America and to reach the west coast. The United States hadabundant natural resources &endash; land, water, coal and iron ore&endash; and after the great wave of immigration from Europe and Asiain the late 19th century &endash; it also had the labor. During the late 1800s, industrialization spread to Russia andJapan, in both cases by government initiatives. In Russia the tsaristgovernment encouraged the construction of railroads to link placeswithin the vast reaches of the empire.The most impressive one wasthe Trans-Siberian line constructed between 1891 and 1904, linkingMoscow to Vladivostock on the Pacific Ocean. The railroads also gaveRussians access to the empire's many coal and iron deposits, and by1900 Russia ranked fourth in the world in steel production. TheJapanese government also pushed industrialization, hiring thousandsof foreign experts to instruct Japanese workers and mangers in thelate 1800s. Railroads were constructed, mines were opened, a bankingsystem was organized, and industries were started that producedships, armaments, silk, cotton, chemicals, and glass.By 1900 Japanwas the most industrialized land in Asia, and was set to become a20th century power. CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF WORLDTRADE Industrialization greatly increased the economic, military, andpolitical strength of the societies that embraced it. By and large,the countries th at benefited from industrialization were the onesthat had the necessary components of land, labor and capital, andoften government support. However, even though many other countriestried to industrialize, few had much success.For example, Indiatried to develop jute and steel industries, but the entrepreneursfailed because they had no government support and little investmentcapital. An international division of labor resulted: people inindustrialized countries produced manufactured products, and peoplein less industrialized countries produced the raw materials necessaryfor that production. Industrial England, for example, needed cotton,so turned to India, Egypt, and the American south to produce it forthem. In many cases this division of labor led to colonization of thenon-industrialized areas.As industrialization increased, more ironand coal were needed, as well as other fibers for the textileindustry, and the British Empire grew rapidly in order to meet thesedemands. Many countries in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia,and southeast Asia became highly dependent on one cash crop – such assugar, cotton, and rubber – giving them the nickname of â€Å"BananaRepublics. † Such economies were very vulnerable to any change in theinternational market. Foreign investors owned and controlled theplantations that produced these crops, and most of the profits wentto them.Very little of the profits actually improved the livingconditions for people that lived in those areas, and since they hadlittle money to spend, a market economy could not develop. Despite the inequalities, the division of labor between people incountries that produced raw materials and those that producedmanufactured goods increased the total volume of world trade. Inturn, this increased volume led to better technology, whichreinforced and fed the trade. Sea travel became much more efficient,with journeys that had once taken months or years reduced to days orweeks.By 1914 t wo great canals shortened sea journeys by thousandsof miles. The Suez Canal built by the British and French in the 1850slinked the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, making it no longernecessary to go around the tip of Africa to get from Europe to Asiaby sea. The Panama Canal, completed in 1913, did a similar thing inthe western hemisphere, cutting a swath through Central America thatencouraged trade and transportation between the Atlantic and PacificOceans. DEMOGRAPHIC AND ENVIRONMENTALCHANGES The Industrial Revolution significantly changed populationpatterns, migrations, and environments.In industrialized nationspeople moved to the areas around factories to work there, citiesgrew, and as a result an overall migration from rural to urban areastook place. This movement was facilitated by the growth of railroadsand improvement of other forms of transportation. This era also sawmigrations on a large scale from Europe and Asia into the Americas,so that the overall population of the west ern hemisphere increased. However, this movement did not translate into a decrease ofpopulation in the eastern hemisphere.Particularly in Europe, theAgricultural Revolution improved nutrition, especially as the potato(transported from the New World in the previous era) became a maindiet staple for European peasants. THE END OF THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE ANDSLAVERY Even as we may debate whether slavery and the slave trade cameabout because of racism or economic benefit, we may argue about whyboth ended during this era. From the beginning, as the Atlantic slavetrade enriched some Africans and many Europeans, it became a topic offierce debate in Europe, Africa, and the Americas in the late 18thcentury.The American and French revolutions stimulated thesediscussions, since both emphasized liberty, equality, and justice,topics that fed a strong abolitionist movement. Because most slaveswere not allowed to learn to read and write, most outspokenabolitionists were free whites in England and N orth America. However,Africans themselves took up the struggle to abolish slavery and theslave trade, rising in frequent slave revolts in the 18th and 19thcenturies that made slavery an expensive and dangerous business.Probably the most famous African spokespersons was Olaudah Equiano, awest African who published an autobiography in 1789 that recountedhis experiences as a slave in Africa and the New World. He latergained his freedom, learned to read and write, and became active inthe abolitionist movement. Many people read his works, heard himspeak, and were influenced to oppose slavery. Despite the importance of the abolitionist movement, economicforces also contributed to the end of slavery and the slave trade. Plantations and the slave labor that supported them remained in placeas long as they were profitable.In the Caribbean, a revolution, ledby Toussaint L'Ouverture resulted in the liberation of slaves inHaiti and the creation of the first black free state in the Americas. Howe ver, the revolution was so violent that it sparked fear amongplantation owners and colonial governments throughout the Caribbean. In the late 18th century, a rapid increase in Caribbean sugarproduction led to declining prices, and yet prices for slavesremained high and even increased. Even as plantations experiences these difficulties, profits fromthe emerging manufacturing industries were increasing, so investorsshifted their money to these new endeavors.Investors discovered thatwage labor in factories was cheaper than slave labor on plantationsbecause the owners were not responsible for food and shelter. Entrepreneurs began to see Africa as a place to get raw materials forindustry, not just slaves. THE END OF THE SLAVE TRADE Most European countries and the United States had abolished theslave trade before the mid-19th century: Britain in 1807, the UnitedStates in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in1845. Ardent abolitionists in Britain pressured the governme nt tosend patrol ships to the est coast of Africa to conduct search andseizure operations for ships that violated the ban. The lastdocumented ship that carried slaves on the Middle Passage arrived inCuba in 1867. THE END OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery continued in most places in theAmericas long after the slave trade was abolished, with the Britishabolishing slavery in their colonies in 1833. The French abolishedslavery in 1848, the same year that their last king was overthrown bya democratic government.The United States abolished slavery in 1865when the north won a bitter Civil War that had divided the southernslave-holding states from the northern non-slavery states. The lastcountry to abolish slavery in the Americas was Brazil, where theinstitution was weakened by a law that allowed slaves to fight in thearmy in exchange for freedom. Army leaders resisted demands that theycapture and return runaway slaves, and slavery was abolished in 1888,without a war. IMMIGRATION TO THE AMERICAS Various immigration patterns arose to replace the slave trade.Asian and European immigrants came to seek opportunities in theAmericas from Canada in the north to Argentina in the south. Somewere attracted to discoveries of gold and silver in western NorthAmerica and Canada, including many who made their way west from theeastern United States. However, European and Asian migrants whobecame workers in factories, railroad construction sites, andplantations outnumbered those who were gold prospectors. By the mid 19th century European migrants began crossing theAtlantic to fill the factories in the eastern United States.Increasing rents and indebtedness drove farmers from Ireland,Scotland, Germany and Scandinavia to North America, settling in theOhio and Mississippi River Valleys in search of land. The potatofamine forced many Irish peasants to make the journey, and politicalrevolutions caused many Germans to flee the wrath of the governmentwhen their causes failed. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries,most immigrants to North America were from southern and easternEurope, fleeing famine, poverty, and discrimination in theircountries of origin.While migrants to the United States came to fill jobs in thedeveloping industrial society, those who went to Latin America mostlyworked on agricultural plantations. About 4 million Italians came toArgentina in the 1880s and 1890s, and others went to Brazil, wherethe government paid the voyage over for Italian migrants who came towork on coffee plantations after slavery was abolished. Others camefrom Asia, with more than 15,000 indentured laborers from Chinaworking in sugarcane fields in Cuba during the 19th century. Chineseand Japanese laborers came to Peru where they worked on cottonplantations, in mines, and on railroad lines.THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION This era saw a basic change in the population structures ofindustrialized countries. Large families had always been welcome inagricultural societies because the more people a family had, the moreland they were able to work. Children's work was generally worth morethan it costs to take care of them. However, in the west, includingthe United States, the birth rate declined to historically low levelsin the 19th century. This demographic transition from high birthrates to low reflected the facts that child labor was being replacedby machines and that children were not as useful as they were inagricultural societies.Instead, as life styles changed in urbansettings, it became difficult to support large families, both interms of supporting them with salaries from industrial jobs and inhousing them in crowded conditions in the cities. High birth ratescontinued elsewhere in the world, so the west's percentage of totalworld population began to slip by 1900 even as its world powerpeaked. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES Wilderness areas in Europe were virtually gone by 1750, withalmost every piece of land used by farmers or townspeople. However,the process cont inued during this era, and deforestation became themost serious problem.Americans transformed their lands even morerapidly as people moved west, clearing forests for farms and thenmoving on when the soil was depleted. The cultivation of cotton wasespecially harmful. Planters cut down forests, grew cotton for a fewyears, moved west, and abandoned the land to scrub pines. Surprisingly, industrialization actually relieved environmentaldepletion in Britain because raw materials once grown on British soil&endash; like wool and grain – were replaced by coal and iron foundunderground. Iron replaced wood in many building structures,including ships, so that deforestation slowed.The most dramatic environmental changes in industrializedcountries occurred in the towns. Never before had towns grown sofast, and major cities formed. London grew from about 500,000inhabitants in 1700 to more than 2 million by 1850, with the largestpopulation a city had ever had in world history. Cities in the middleindustrial belt of Britain, such as Liverpool and Manchester grewrapidly during this period as well. New York City in the UnitedStates reached about 600,000 in 1850. CHANGES IN SOCIAL AND GENDERSTRUCTUREIndustrialization also transformed social and gender structures incountries where it developed, although it is not entirely clear as towhether the â€Å"gender gap† narrowed or widened. By and largeindustrialization widened the gap between the rich and the poor bycreating opportunities for businessmen to be far richer than theupper classes in an agricultural society ever could be. Although theywere free, not forced, laborers, the wages for factory workers werevery low, and many suffered as much if not more poverty than they hadas rural peasants. WORKING CONDITIONSIndustrialization offered new opportunities to people withimportant skills, such as carpentry, metallurgy, and machineoperations. Some enterprising people became engineers or opened theirown businesses, but for the vast majority of those who left theirfarming roots to find their fortunes in the cities, life was full ofdisappointments. Most industrial jobs were boring, repetitive, andpoorly paid. Workdays were long with few breaks, and workersperformed one simple task over and over with little sense ofaccomplishment. Unlike even the poorest farmer or craftsman, factoryworkers had no control over tools, jobs, or working hours.Factoryworkers could do very little about their predicament until the latterpart of the period, when labor unions formed and helped to provokethe moral conscience of some middle class people. Until then, workerswho dared to go on strike &endash; like the unmarried girls at theLowell mills in Massachusetts &endash; they were simply replaced byother workers from the abundant supply of labor. FAMILY LIFE Because machinery had to be placed in a large, centrally locatedplace, workers had to go to factories to perform their work, a majorchange in lifestyles from those of agr icultural societies.Inprevious days all family members did most of their work on the farm,which meant that the family stayed together most of the time. Division of labor meant that they did different types of work, mostlysplit by gender and age, but the endeavor was a collective one. Evenin the early days of commercialization, â€Å"piece work† was generallydone by people at home, and then delivered to the merchant orbusinessman. Now, people left their homes for hours at a time, oftenleaving very early and not returning till very late. Usually bothhusband and wife worked away from home, and for most of this period,so did children.Family life was never the same again. In the early days of industrialization, the main occupation ofworking women was domestic servitude. If they had small children,they usually tried to find work they could do at home, such aslaundry, sewing, or taking in lodgers. However, even with bothparents working, wages were so low that most families found itd ifficult to make ends meet. Most industrialists encouraged workersto bring their children along with them to the factories becausechildren usually could do the work, too, and they were quitecheap. CHANGES IN SOCIAL CLASSESA major social change brought about by the Industrial Revolutionwas the development of a relatively large middle class, or†bourgeoisie† in industrialized countries. This class had beengrowing in Europe since medieval days when wealth was based on land,and most people were peasants. With the advent of industrialization,wealth was increasingly based on money and success in businessenterprises, although the status of inherited titles of nobilitybased on land ownership remained in place. However, land had neverproduced such riches as did business enterprises of this era, and somembers of the bourgeoisie were the wealthiest people around.However, most members of the middle class were not wealthy, owningsmall businesses or serving as managers or administrator s in largebusinesses. They generally had comfortable lifestyles, and many wereconcerned with respectability, or the demonstration that they were ofa higher social class than factory workers were. They valued the hardwork, ambition, and individual responsibility that had led to theirown success, and many believed that the lower classes only hadthemselves to blame for their failures. This attitude generallyextended not to just the urban poor, but to people who still farmedin rural areas.The urban poor were often at the mercy of business cycles &endash;swings between economic hard times to recovery and growth. Factoryworkers were laid off from their jobs during hard times, making theirlives even more difficult. With this recurrent unemployment camepublic behaviors, such as drunkenness and fighting, that appalled themiddle class, who stressed sobriety, thrift, industriousness, andresponsibility. Social class distinctions were reinforced by Social Darwinism, aphilosophy by Englishman Her bert Spencer.He argued that humansociety operates by a system of natural selection, wherebyindividuals and ways of life automatically gravitate to their properstation. According to Social Darwinists, poverty was a â€Å"naturalcondition† for inferior individuals. GENDER ROLES AND INEQUALITY Changes in gender roles generally fell along class lines, withrelationships between men and women of the middle class being verydifferent from those in the lower classes. LOWER CLASS MEN AND WOMEN Factory workers often resisted the work discipline and pressuresimposed by their middle class bosses.They worked long hours inunfulfilling jobs, but their leisure time interests fed thepopularity of two sports: European soccer and American baseball. Theyalso did less respectable things, like socializing at bars and pubs,staging dog or chicken fights, and participating in other activitiesthat middle class men disdained. Meanwhile, most of their wives were working, most commonly asdomestic servants for middle class households, jobs that they usuallypreferred to factory work. Young women in rural areas often came tocities or suburban areas to work as house servants.They often sentsome of their wages home to support their families in the country,and some saved dowry money. Others saved to support ambitions tobecome clerks or secretaries, jobs increasingly filled by women, butsupervised by men. MIDDLE CLASS MEN AND WOMEN When production moved outside the home, men who became owners ormanagers of factories gained status. Industrial work kept the economymoving, and it was valued more than the domestic chores traditionallycarried out by women. Men's wages supported the families, since theyusually were the ones who made their comfortable life stylespossible.The work ethic of the middle class infiltrated leisure timeas well. Many were intent on self-improvement, reading books orattending lectures on business or culture. Many factory owners andmanagers stressed the importance of churc h attendance for all, hopingthat factory workers could be persuaded to adopt middle-class valuesof respectability. Middle class women generally did not work outside of the home,partly because men came to see stay-at-home wives as a symbol oftheir success. What followed was a â€Å"cult of domesticity† thatjustified removing women from the work place.Instead, they filledtheir lives with the care of children and the operation of theirhomes. Since most middle-class women had servants, they spent timesupervising them, but they also had to do fewer household choresthemselves. Historians disagree in their answers to the question of whether ornot gender inequality grew because of industrialization. Gender roleswere generally fixed in agricultural societies, and if the lives ofworking class people in industrial societies are examined, it isdifficult to see that any significant changes in the gender gap tookplace at all.However, middle class gender roles provide the realbasis for the argument. On the one hand, some argue that women wereforced out of many areas of meaningful work, isolated in their homesto obsess about issues of marginal importance. On the farm, theirwork was â€Å"women's work,† but they were an integral part of thecentral enterprise of their time: agriculture. Their work in raisingchildren was vital to the economy, but industrialization renderedchildren superfluous as well, whose only role was to grow up safelyenough to fill their adult gender-related duties.On the other hand,the â€Å"cult of domesticity† included a sort of idolizing of women thatmade them responsible for moral values and standards. Women were seenas stable and pure, the vision of what kept their men devoted to thetasks of running the economy. Women as standard-setters, then, becamethe important force in shaping children to value respectability, leadmoral lives, and be responsible for their own behaviors. Withoutwomen filling this important role, the entire socia l structure thatsupported industrialized power would collapse. And who could wish formore power than that?NEW POLITICAL IDEAS ANDMOVEMENTS In 1750 only England and the Netherlands had constitutionalmonarchies, governments that limited the powers of the king or ruler. All the other kingdoms of Europe, as well as the Muslim Empires andChina, practiced absolutism. Absolutist rulers benefited from thetendency for governments to centralize between 1450 and 1750 becauseit extended the power they had over their subjects. Most of therulers reinforced their powers by claiming special authority for thesupernatural, whether it be the mandate of heaven as practiced inChina, or divine right as European kings declared.Between 1750 and1914, absolute rulers almost everywhere lost power, and the rule oflaw became a much more important political principle. One of the most important political concepts to arise from the erawas the â€Å"nation-state,† a union often characterized by a commonlangu age, shared historical experiences and institutions, and similarcultural traditions, including religion at both the elite and popularlevels. As a result, political loyalties were no longer so determinedby one's attitudes toward a particular king or noble but by a moreabstract attachment to a â€Å"nation. FORCES FOR POLITICAL CHANGE As the Industrial Revolution began in England, the economicchanges were accompanied by demands for political changes that spreadto many other areas of the world by the end of the 19th century. Twoimportant forces behind the change were: †¢ The influence of the Enlightenment – The 1700s are sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Age of Enlightenment,† because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of absolute governments.The Enlightenment began in Europe, and was a part of the changes associated with the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Protestant Reformation, all taking place betw een 1450 and 1750. The Enlightenment invited people to use their â€Å"reason† using the same humanistic approach of Renaissance times. People can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies. In the 1600s John Locke wrote that a ruler's authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social contract that gave subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled badly.French philosophes, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to France, where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism. †¢ New wealth of the bourgeoisie – Ongoing commercialization of the economy meant that the middle class grew in size and wealth, but not necessarily in political power. These self-made men questioned the idea that aristocrats alone should hold the highest political offices. Most could read and write, and found Enlightenment philosophy appealing in its questioning of absolute power. They sought po litical power to match the economic power that they had gained.REVOLUTIONS A combination of economic, intellectual, and social changesstarted a wave of revolutions in the late 1700s that continued intothe first half of the 19th century. The started in North America andFrance, and spread into other parts of Europe and to LatinAmerica. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Ironically, the first revolution inspired by the new politicalthought that originated in England began in the North Americancolonies and was directed at England. It began when Americancolonists resisted Britain's attempt to impose new taxes and tradecontrols on the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in1763.Many also resented Britain's attempts to control the movementwest. â€Å"Taxation without representation† turned British politicaltheory on its ear, but it became a major theme as the rebellionspread from Massachusetts throughout the rest of the colonies. Colonial leaders set up a new government and issued th e Declarationof Independence in 1776. The British sent forces to put the rebelliondown, but the fighting continued for several years until the newlycreated United States eventually won. The United States Constitutionthat followed was based on enlightenment principles, with threebranches of government that check and balance one another.Althoughinitially only a few had the right to vote and slavery was notabolished, the government became a model for revolutions to come. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION A very different situation existed in France. No establishednobility existed in the United States, so when independence wasachieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure tothrow off. In contrast, the Revolution in France was a civil war, arising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risenover centuries.The king, of course, had absolute power, but thenobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else had. Socialclasses were divided into three estates: firs t was the clergy, secondthe nobility, and the Third Estate was everyone else. On the eve ofthe Revolution in 1789, about 97% of the population of France wasthrown into the Third Estate, although they held only about 5% of theland. They also paid 100% of the taxes. Part of the problem was that the growing class of the bourgeoisiehad no political privileges.They read Enlightenment philosophes,they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resentedpaying all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structureas out of date and the nobles as silly and vain, undeserving of theprivileges they had. The French Revolution began with King Louis XVI called theEstates-General, or the old parliamentary structure, together for thefirst time in 160 years. He did so only because the country was infinancial crisis brought on by too many wars for power and anextravagant court life at Versailles Palace.Many problems convergedto create the Revolution: the nobles' refusal to pay taxe s,bourgeoisie resentment of the king, Louis Vic's incompetence, and aseries of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seizedcontrol of the proceedings and declared the creation of the NationalAssembly, a legislative body that still exists in France today. Theywrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeledafter the American Declaration of Independence, and they set about towrite a Constitution for France.The years after the revolution began were turbulent ones that sawthe king beheaded and the government taken over by the Jacobins, aradical group that sought equality through executing those thatdisagreed with the government. The Reign of Terror lasted for abouttwo years, with thousands of people guillotined and thousands morefleeing the country. The Jacobin leaders themselves were eventuallyguillotined; the country teetered for several years in disarray, andfinally was swept up by Napoleon Bonaparte as he claimed French gloryin battle. Democracy did not c ome easily in France. CONSERVATIVE REACTION TOREVOLUTIONNapoleon Bonaparte, of minor nobility from the island of Corsica,rose through the ranks of the French military during a time of chaos. He seized the French Government at a time when no one else couldcontrol it. He promised stability and conquest, and by 1812 theFrench Empire dominated Europe to the borders of Russia. His invasionof Russia was unsuccessful, done in by cold winters, long supplylines, and Tsar Alexander It's burn and retreat method that leftFrench armies without food. Finally, an alliance of Europeancountries led by Britain defeated Napoleon in 1815 at Waterloo inmodern day Belgium.Although Napoleon was defeated and exiled, othercountries were horrified by what had happened in France: arevolution, the beheading of a king, a terrorizing egalitariangovernment, and finally a demagogue who attacked all of Europe. Toconservative Europe, France was a problem that had to be containedbefore their ideas and actions spread to the rest of thecontinent. The allies that had defeated Napoleon met at Vienna in 1815 toreach a peace settlement that would make further revolutionsimpossible. The Congress of Vienna was controlled by therepresentatives of three nations: Britain, Austria, and Russia.Eachcountry wanted something different. The British wanted to destroy theFrench war machine, Russia wanted to establish an alliance based onChristianity, and Austria wanted a return to absolutism. They reachedan agreement based on restoring the balance of power in Europe, orthe principle that no one country should ever dominate the others. Rather, the power should be balanced among all the major countries. France actually came out rather well in the proceedings, due in largepart to the talents of their representative, Tallyrand.However, theCongress restricted France with these major decisions: †¢ Monarchies – including the monarchy in France – were restored in countries that Napoleon had conquered à ¢â‚¬ ¢ France was â€Å"ringed† with strong countries by its borders to keep its military in check. †¢ The Concert of Europe was formed, an organization of European states meant to maintain the balance of power. THE SPREAD OF REVOLUTION AND NEW POLITICALIDEAS No matter how the Congress of Vienna tried to stem the tide ofrevolution, it did not work in the long run.France was to wobbleback and forth between monarchy and republican government for thirtymore years, and then was ruled by Napoleon III (Bonaparte's nephew)until 1871, when finally a parliamentary government emerged. Andother countries in Europe, as well as colonies in Latin America, hadheard â€Å"the shot heard round the world,† and the true impact of therevolutionary political ideas began to be felt. REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA From North America and France, revolutionary enthusiasm spreadthroughout the Caribbean and Spanish and Portuguese America.Incontrast to the leaders of the War for Independence f or the UnitedStates, most of the early revolutions in Latin America began withsubordinated Amerindians and blacks. Even before the FrenchRevolution, Andean Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, besieged the ancientcapital of Cuzco and nearly conquered the Spanish army. The Creoleelite responded by breaking the ties to Spain and Portugal, butestablishing governments under their control. Freedom, then, wasinterpreted to mean liberty for the property-owning classes. Only inthe French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti) did slaves carry out asuccessful insurrection.The rebellion in 1791 led to several years of civil war in Haiti,even though French abolished slavery in 1793. When Napoleon came topower, he sent an army to tame the forces led by ToussaintL'Ouverture, a former slave. However, Napoleon's army was decimatedby guerrilla fighters and yellow fever, and even though Toussaintdied in a French jail, Haiti declared its independence in 1804. Other revolutions in Latin America were led by politica l andsocial elites, although some of them had important populistelements. †¢ Brazil – Portugal's royal family fled to Brazil when Napoleon's troops stormed the Iberian Peninsula.The presence of the royal family dampened revolutionary fervor, especially since the king instituted reforms in administration, agriculture, and manufacturing. He also established schools, hospitals, and a library. The king returned to Portugal in 1821, after Napoleon's threat was over, leaving Brazil in the hands of his son Pedro. Under pressure from Brazilian elites, Pedro declared Brazil's independence, and he signed a charter establishing a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the late 19th century when Pedro II was overthrown by republicans. Mexico – Father Miguel Hidalgo led Mexico's rebellion that eventually led to independence in 1821. He was a Catholic priest who sympathized with the plight of the Amerindian peasants and was executed for leading a rebellion against the coloni al government. The Creole elite then took up the drive for independence that was won under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a conservative military commander. However, Father Hidalgo's cause greatly influenced Mexico's political atmosphere, as his populist ideas were taken up by others who led the people in revolt against the Creoles.Two famous populist leaders were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who like Father Hidalgo were executed by the government. Mexico was not to work out this tension between elite and peasants until well into the 20th century. †¢ Spanish South America – Colonial elite – landholders, merchants, and military – also led Spanish colonies in South America in rebellion against Spain. The term â€Å"junta† came to be used for these local governments who wanted to overthrow colonial powers. Two junta centers in South America were: 1. Caracas, Venezuela – At first, laborers and slaves did not support this Creole-led ju nta.However, they were convinced to join the independence movement by Simon de Bolivar, a charismatic military leader with a vision of forging â€Å"Gran Columbia,† an independent, giant empire in the northern part of South America. He defeated the Spanish, but did not achieve his dream of empire. Instead, regional differences caused the newly independent lands to split into several countries. 2. Buenos Aires, Argentina – Another charismatic military leaders – Jose de San Martin – led armies for independence from the southern part of the continent.His combined Chilean/Argentine forces joined with Bolivar in Peru, where they helped the northern areas to defeat the Spanish. Martin's areas, like those led by Bolivar, also split along regional differences. All in all, constitutional experiments in North America were moresuccessful than those in South America. Though South Americans gainedindependence from colonial governments during the 19th century, theirgov ernments remained authoritarian and no effective legislatures werecreated to share the power with political leaders. Why thisdifference? COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL EXPERIMENTS ; NORTH AMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA | |NORTH AMERICA |SOUTH AMERICA | |Mother country had parliamentary government, so colonial governments had a |Mother country governed by absolute monarch; colonial | |constitutional model |governments had authoritarian model | |Colonies had previous experience with popular politics; had their wn |Colonies had no experience with popular politics; | |governments that often operated independently from British control |colonial governments led by authoritarian Creoles | |Military leaders were popular and sometimes became Presidents (Washington, |Had difficulty subduing the power of military leaders;| |Jackson), but they did not try to take over the government as military |set in place the tradition of military juntas taking | |leaders; constitutional principle that military wou ld be subordinate to the|over governments | |government | | |American Revolution occurred in the 1770s; vulnerable new nation emerged at|Latin American Revolutions occurred during the early | |an economically advantageous time, when the world economy was expanding |1800s, a time when the world economy was contracting, | | |a less advantageous time for new nations | The differences in political backgrounds of the two continents ledto some very different consequences. For the United States (andeventually Canada), it meant that relatively democratic governmentsleft entrepreneurs open to the Industrial Revolution, which, afterall, started in their mother country. For Latin America, it meantthat their governments were less supportive and/or more removed fromthe economic transformations of the Industrial Revolutions, andstable democratic governments and economic prosperity would be a longtime in coming. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OFREVOLUTIONSThe Enlightenment philosophy that inspired rev olutions in theUnited States, France, and Latin America brought about lastingchanges in western political ideology, with some people reactingagainst the chaos that revolutions brought, and others inspired bythe values of democracy, liberty, equality, and justice. Threecontrasting ideologies may be seen by the early 1800s: †¢ Conservatism – People who supported this philosophy at first advocated return to absolute monarchy, but came to accept constitutional monarchy by the mid-1800s. Generally, conservatives disapproved of the revolutions of the era, particularly the French Revolution with all the violence and chaos that it brought. †¢ Liberalism – Liberals supported a republican democracy, or a government with an elected legislature who represented the people in political decision-making.These representatives were generally from the elite, but were selected (usually by vote) from a popular base of citizens. Emphasis was generally on liberty or freedom from op pression, rather than on equality. †¢ Radicalism – Radicals advocated drastic changes in government and emphasized equality more than liberty. Their philosophies varied, but they were most concerned with narrowing the gap between elites and the general population. The Jacobins during the French Revolution, and Marxism that appeared in the mid 19th century were variations of this ideological family. REFORM MOVEMENTS The political values supported by revolutions were embraced bysome who saw them as applying to all people, including women andformer slaves.Values of liberty, equality, and democracy hadprofound implications for change within societies that had alwaysaccepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reformmovements sprouted up as different people put differentinterpretations on what these new political and social valuesactually meant. Women's Rights Advocates of women's rights were particularly active in Britain,France, and North America. Mary Wollstonecr aft, an English writer,was one of the first to argue that women possessed all the rightsthat Locke had granted to men, including education and participationin political life. Many French women assumed that they would begranted equal rights after the revolution. However, it did not bringthe right to vote or play major roles in public affairs.Since genderroles did not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, socialreformers pressed for women's rights in North America and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in theUnited States decided to concentrate their efforts on suffrage, orthe right to vote. A resolution passed at Seneca Falls, New York, in1848, emphasized women's rights to suffrage, as well as to education,professional occupations, and political office. Their movement didnot receive popular support, however, until the 20th century, buttheir activism laid a foundation for large-scale social changelater. The Limits of the Abolitionist Movement Although slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by thelate 19th century, blacks did not realize equality within the timeperiod. Although former slaves were guaranteed the right to vote inthe late 1860s in the United States, they were effectively barredfrom political participation by state and local legislation calledJim Crow laws. Blacks all over the Americas tended to have the leastdesirable jobs, limited educational opportunities, and lower socialstatus than whites. Conservative Reactions to Reform During the late 1800s two systems of related political thoughtemerged among conservatives to justify inequalities: †¢ Scientific racism – This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized societies.It used scientific reasoning and evidence to prove its premise that blacks are physiologically and mentally inferior to whites. The theory generally constructed three main â€Å"races† in the world – Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Ne groid ; and built its arguments that basic differences existed among them that made Negroids inherently inferior to Caucasians. Scientific racism, then, justified the inferior positions that blacks had in the society and the economy. †¢ Social Darwinism – This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and the poor. It used Darwin's theory of natural selection (living things that are better adapted to the environment survive, others don't) to explain why some get rich and others remain poor.In the competition for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated naturally defeat the weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top deserve it, as do the people who remain at the bottom Marxism Another reaction to the revolution in political thought wasMarxism, The father of communism is generally acknowledged to be KarlMarx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and visi onfor the future in The Communist Manifesto in 1848. He saw capitalism; or the free market ; as an economic system thatexploited workers and increased the gap between the rich and thepoor.He believed that conditions in capitalist countries wouldeventually become so bad that workers would join together in aRevolution of the Proletariat (workers), and overcome thebourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx envisioned a new world after the revolution, one in which socialclass would disappear because ownership of private property would bebanned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality andcooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife,governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe,but never became the philosophy behind European governments, but iteventually took new forms in early 20th century Russia and China. NATIONALISMIn older forms of political organizations, the glue of politicalunity came from the ruler, whe ther it is a king, emperor, sultan, orcaliph. Political power generally was built on military might, and aruler controlled the land that he conquered as long as he controlledit. Power was often passed down within one family that based thelegitimacy of their rule on principles that held sway over theirpopulations, often some kind of special contact with the spiritualworld. The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type ofpolitical organization – the nation – that survived even if therulers failed. Whereas nations' political boundaries were still oftendecided by military victory, the political entity was much broaderthan control by one person or family.Nations were built onnationalism – the feeling of identity within a common group ofpeople. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of theworld. However, the force of common identity became a basic buildingblock for nations, political forms that still dominate world politicstoday. Nationalism could be based on common geographical locations,language, religion, or customs, but it is much more complex thanthat. The main idea is that people see themselves as â€Å"Americans† or†Italians† or â€Å"Japanese,† despite the fact that significant culturalvariations may exist within the nation. Napoleon contributed a great deal to the development of strongnationalism in 19th century Europe.His conquests were done in thename of â€Å"France,† even though the French monarchy had been deposed. The more he conquered, the more pride people had in being â€Å"French. â€Å"He also stirred up feelings of nationalism within a people that heconquered: â€Å"Germans† that could not abide being taken over by theFrench. In Napoleon's day Germany did not exist as a country yet, butpeople still thought of themselves as being German. Instead Germanslived in a political entity known as â€Å"The Holy Roman Empire. â€Å"However, the nationalism that Napoleon invoked became the basis forfurther revolutions, in which people around the world sought todetermine their own sovereignty, a principle that Woodrow Wilsoncalled self-determination. RISE OF WESTERN DOMINANCEA combination of economic and political transformations in Europethat began in the 1450 to 1750 era converged between 1750 and 1914 toallow the â€Å"west† (including the United States and Australia) todominate the rest of the world. From China to the Muslim states toAfrica, virtually all other parts of the world became the â€Å"have nots†to the west's â€Å"haves. † With political and economic dominance camecontrol in cultural and artistic areas as well. NEW EUROPEAN NATIONS A major political development inspired by growing nationalism wasthe consolidation of small states into two important new nations: †¢ Italy – Before the second half of the 19th century, Italy was a collection of city-states that were only loosely allied with one another. A u nification movement was begun in the north by Camillo di Cavour, and in the north by Giuseppe Garibaldi.As states unified one by one, the two leaders joined, and Italy became a unified nation under King Vittore Emmanuele II. The movement was a successful attempt to escape the historical domination of the peninsula by Spain in the south and Austria in the north. †¢ Germany – The German Confederation was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but it had been controlled by the Austrian and Prussian Empires. In 1848 major rebellions broke out within the confederation, inspired by liberals who envisioned a German nation ruled by parliamentary government. The revolutions failed, and many liberals fled the country, but they proved to be an excuse for the Prussian army to invade other parts of the Confederation.The Prussian military leader was Otto von Bismarck, who subjugated the rebels and declared the beginning of the German Empire. The government was a constitutional mon archy, with Kaiser Wilhelm I ruling, but for a number of years, Bismarck had control. He provoked three wars &endash; with Denmark, Austria, and France &endash; and appealed to German nationalism to create a strong new nation in the heart of Europe. He pronounced it the â€Å"2nd Reich† or ruling era (the 1st was the Holy Roman Empire and the 3rd was set up by Adolph Hitler in the 20th century). These new nations altered the balance of power in Europe, causingestablished nations like Britain and France concern that their ownpower was in danger.Nationalism, then, was spurred on by a renewalof